Interest Groups

 For elected officials to express their ideas, needs and opinions is an important mechanism. U.S. citizens, regardless of how specific issues of concern or special, often can find a special interest groups such issues. from a number of voluntary agencies including the U.S. Contacts can be seen, civil society composed of these reasons varied. Gale Research's not all political activities, but many of them to exert influence on public policy for the purpose.
American political system in terms of tangible, or from intangible Traditionally, all the interest groups provide fertile soil for survival. the U.S. system in favor of strengthening the influence of interest groups, one of the characteristics is relatively weak political power, which to some extent the result of the executive and legislative powers. In the parliamentary system as the United Kingdom, the Prime Minister to rely on Parliament majority support to the ruling, legislators in all political parties, thus also the formulation of policies, with considerable control. On the contrary, the U.S. presidential election and parliamentary elections are two separate political operation, even when held at the same time. Each legislators have to be in his / her state or the district form a team to win the league, and the nature of this alliance, the winning presidential candidate with a majority consisting of not the same league. is to illustrate this point phenomenon is that in since World War II most of the time, Congress and the President of the terms of reference were to grasp the hands of the opposing political party. Therefore, whether Democrats or Republicans, not necessarily in support of the party President of the claims or support the party's election platform is not. Because of the low degree of party loyalty, so the influence of interest groups to raise this not only reflected in the much-needed funds to support the campaign period; also performed after the election, those who were ever candidate wins support of interest groups closely involved in the formulation of policy.
the U.S. system in favor of strengthening the influence of interest groups, the second was characterized by political decentralization to the state and local, that is, the federal system, or said Because of the 50 states of social and economic situation is very different, difficult to implement an absolute party line.
addition, the U.S. system of strong, independent judicial system has strengthened the forces of interest groups. In other democracies, legislative or administrative naturalization body to deal with problems in the United States, often by the courts to decide. Therefore, the interest groups can not be achieved through litigation to the decision-making through legislative means to achieve goals. For example, the early 50s in the 20th century, the national NAACP (NAACP) in the court in favor of apartheid in the United States to open the first gap, the control positions than from the south Members of Congress willing to take action for several years earlier.
last thing: the United States of speech, press, publishing and almost unlimited freedom of association, the traditional means that almost any view expressed interest group, no matter how radical, can have the opportunity to open communication. Of course, the growing centralization of the media since World War II, so that some hold the edge groups view more difficult to make people hear voices. However, given the various groups can be more than the Internet, the trend of decentralization is offset to some extent. In short, the United States freedom of expression and press freedom in the tradition of providing social made public and public policy issues to comment on a large number of opportunities, thus encouraging the formation of interest groups.

range of interest groups before 1970, the United States introduced standard textbooks interest groups them into three categories most : business, labor and agriculture. Since then, the range of interest groups have become much more complicated. U.S. farmers to reduce the population of agricultural interest groups have lost influence, while a number of emerging new outside of these categories interest groups.
Business
Many scholars agree that the business sector in American politics plays a major role. consortia in a prominent position in the U.S. economy. As an elected official to be responsible for the country's economic performance, they often worry that if adopted the policy of confrontation with the business sector will be detrimental to economic performance.
However, the business sector to use its direct influence. with its huge financial resources of large multinational companies to promote their own political goals. They are often Federation is a member of a variety of industries, the Federation represents the industry's advocate in the political process. These companies also support the Assocation of Manufacturers) and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce (US Chamber of Commerce). In addition, some companies separate direct lobbying, out of millions of dollars in campaign contributions as to support the candidate they favor.

unions unions very slow development of the early 20th century, but the 30's when the political system in the United States has made an important position. century, 50 years, the number of union members reached a peak, accounting for 35% of the total number of workers. However, since the 60's, the union membership began to decline to the current population of only about 15% of workers, trade unions with their economic and political strength is also the weakening of the strength decrease. reduce the number of union members is very complicated reasons, discussed in detail in this difficult, but largely due to the nature of the global economy has changed, the United States from a manufacturing-based economy, changed focus to a service oriented economy. However, when unions focus their energy on an issue of an election or when, still has considerable influence.
professional societies
Another important interest groups are professionals of the community. These groups, such as the American Medical Association (Amercian Medical Association) and the American Bar Association (Amercian Bar Association) and so on, to focus on their own common professional interests, values and status. forces weaker but no less degree of organization is the public sector, professional staff. in state and local government, almost every profession has its own national organization. For example, in the areas of housing policy, there is the National Association of Housing and redevelopment of the civil service will (National Association of Housing and Redevelopment Officials), the state housing authority National Council (National Council of State Housing Agencies), and large public housing authority the Council (Council of Large Public Housing Authorities). According to state and federal law, these organizations may not participate in partisan activities. However, when faced with projects related to their work The problem, these groups will go to Congress to testify, they also organize their own members from the state and the region with members of the dialogue. As public programs serve low-income persons, and these people have very little influence on the composition national interest groups, therefore, these public service staff associations in the American political process has become the talk of the major spokesmen for the poor.

other relevant intergovernmental organizations, types of interest groups who represent the state and local groups of different units of government, which is in the country to lobby for their own interests. In the power distributed to federal, state and local governments at all levels of the U.S. federal system, these groups do not have a formal role, but they have and the same effect as other interest groups, about their views of the members of this Congress and administration, and in the media to promote their views. For example, the National Governors Association (National Governors' Association) and the National Conference of State Legislatures (National Conference of State Legislatures ) represents the state officials. As governor shoulder the implementation of federal social welfare programs required by the direct administrative and political responsibilities, the National Governors Association to help members of Congress in the formulation of social welfare legislation, in particular influence. the county agency interests of the county by the National Association (National Association of Counties) represented the interests of the city by the National Urban League (National League of Cities) and the U.S. Conference of Mayors (US Conference of Mayors) representatives.
public interest groups
Since 1970, grown the most in the interests of the Group is the direct material interest group members, but the values of society as a whole to express their interests. The first batch of public interest groups, with the 60's civil rights movement, the feminist movement and the environmental movement came into being. to support these business people often gone through a development process, from the adoption of the idea of street protests to express their political system to be organized action. then, public interest groups and development into new areas such as disability rights, prevention of child abuse or domestic violence the gay and lesbian rights. These groups are also advocating the establishment of pro-poor project's main force. public interest groups, including some of the major groups: the National Federation of low-income housing coalition (National Low Income Housing Coalition), protection of UNICEF (Children's Defense Fund), as well as the interests of the consumer activist Ralph. Nader (Ralph Nader) leading citizen of the community (Public Citizen) and so on.
general lack of public interest groups like the financial business interest groups. Although public opinion test point of view, their ideas tend to be considerable public support, but generally not more than the number of its members. One reason is that their goal is not with the specific nature of the practical interests, resulting in the that people can benefit from the efforts of these groups, but they do not have to be their own members, or at least not heavily involved. However, these groups use their professional expertise, and information collected through the strong, able to make other groups involved no problem. Initially, most public interest groups are politically left-leaning faction. However, in recent years, conservatives have organized their own interest groups, mostly to deal with the so-called public policy 60,70 liberalism appears tendency. this type of public interest groups including: National Taxpayers Union (National Taxpayers' Union) and women concerned about the U.S. organization (Concerned Women for America). like the Heritage Foundation (The Heritage Foundation) that the conservative think-tank can also play the role of interest groups, as their studies tend to provide the basis for the conservative world view. liberal side of the Urban Institute (Urban Institute), the situation may be similar to this.
the domestic public interest groups, and 80 years in the international arena since the emergence of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) similar. In fact, the United States, some groups with international non-governmental organizations are closely linked. whether it is domestic or international support for public interest groups are concerned about social issues from a whole rather than immediate economic interests of citizens.

limitations of the effectiveness of interest groups from the above brief introduction can be seen, the U.S. political arena has a wide range of interests; a large number of investigations studies indicate that these interest groups promote the effectiveness of different views of its members. cause reason for the difference is that a group how to use their major political resources, namely the number of members, cohesion / intensity, funding, and information.
the number of members and cohesion
stands to reason that enjoy a high rate of interest groups to support should have the greatest impact. advocated by elected officials, is a majority in the polls, people support the policy because they want to support these claims a large number of who one day will be added to the success of their campaign to voters camp. However, there are several factors that make the situation becomes not so simple.
Yes, there are tens of thousands of citizens are members of interest groups, and some groups as environmental protection organizations for Sierra Club (Sierra Club) and the ILO, the AFL / CIO (AFL / CIO), is very weight of numbers. But, if further careful observation we can see, most of the members of many interest groups in fact received only among their potential supporters, a small part of the people. For example, polls showed most Americans in favor of very strict environmental regulations. these supporters can be millions of environmental interest group members sources. However, even the largest environmental groups that the number of members of the public are also less than one million. This relatively small number of members shows a pattern, that is, the number of citizens to participate in interest groups, only the U.S. population is a small part.
the late economist Man Kuer. Olson (Mancur Olson) has done the most feasible explanation. In his view, an interest group to achieve a policy goal, came from the economics said, is a never to Group, each new member dues are assessed, the amount is small. So, on the one hand, thousands of supporters to join interest groups, on the other hand there are also many people do not join, or not fully participate, they become The so-called support into votes cast for those who agree with the objectives of the group of political candidates? elections is a complex behavior, including a wide range of motives and effects: the candidate's personal character, party loyalty, and a variety of variety of issues. on the election results show that many voters supported the candidate for what their support policies and proposals which, not well understood. Therefore, the interest groups is often difficult to prove, its supporters in the election choices with the organization's objectives. those who can vote for candidates that the strength of their organizations, are subject to fear. For example, oppose gun control law formulation of the National Rifle Association (National Rifle Association) members of Congress to make sure that the problem is the members to vote for or against them the key. In this way, the National Rifle Association's influence has far exceeded the proportion of its membership representatives, even though most Americans favor stricter gun control formulation method.
As to mobilize a large number of members is a difficult task, therefore, not surprising that small but uniform groups and strong emotions are often able to produce more than its numbers show the strength of the impact is much greater. First , the smaller groups, each member of the higher contributions paid, will be much easier. smaller groups these advantages, if coupled with the results of its members and decisions at stake, then, even if the small groups, can also become a very powerful force.

funding in recent years to, increased costs due to the political campaign, money, the importance of politics in the United States increased. restrict campaign contributions loopholes in existing laws, but many parties are reluctant to support elected officials to make changes to the current system for fear the other will be modified benefits. those in the national elections, the most influential interest groups, tend to make voluntary contributions to candidates a total of up to several hundred thousand dollars.
In addition, non-election period if you want to keep a seat in Washington, place, and also requires considerable amount of money. a group need to have a group of professionals involved in their interests to go on to influence legislative activities, but also a number of staff members with its own touch to the members for their service. interest groups can not be stable if exist in Washington can not impose on the details of the legislative process behind the scenes influence, and this is precisely the interests of a sign of success.
financial factors are the same factors such as members of the group interaction and cohesion. To overcome the free rider problem interest groups must attract members, as a whole, have sufficient financial resources to make this organization want to develop. The need to develop a minimum income of the bottom line, lower than the bottom line, it is difficult to organize. For this reason, directly representing the poor a smaller number of interest groups.
, however, higher than the bottom line, the role of financial resources becomes more complex. It stands to reason, one with 100 million members, each paying $ 5 to raise the interests of the Group funding (500 million U.S. dollars), should have members with a 1 million people, but to pay 500 dollars per person of interest groups to raise funds which are equal. However, once taking into account the free-rider problem and with many members of the high cost of communications People will be able to see the larger interests of the practical disadvantages.
other interest groups to mobilize resources for the impact of factors related to members of its individual citizens, groups or other agencies. Many powerful interest groups influence In fact, by several groups to form the groups. They include trade associations, professional associations and representatives of public and nonprofit services group. an organization composed of concerned interest groups, many members do not need to mobilize the contact group, but they can call their own associated with these organizations represent thousands of members. In addition, various groups of its members can use their organizational resources, rather than an individual financial resources to provide support.
information in addition to a loyal member of
and outside funding, the information is of interest groups have the most powerful resource. information exchange through several channels. First, the information is passed to decision makers from the interest groups. interest groups often have members who lack the expertise, these groups are keen to to help Members understand the concerns of the community. Yes, the information provided by interest groups often promote their own interests with the bias; members are very aware of this situation. However, they might still find this information useful . interest groups in Washington, Permanent A major advantage is the opportunity to key stages in the decision-making process to provide information to Members.
Second, information from the legislative and executive branches passed to the interest groups. these groups of staff keep track of legislative proposals related to control of the legislative process to influence the best time. through informal exchanges between congressional staff, they have the opportunity to testify at the hearing, and close to a crucial vote, it will be the members of the group mobilized. Through this process, they understand the power of which the most powerful decision makers, and what strategies can win their support. Sometimes, these groups can make under consideration in Congress a bill for specific text be changed, thus affecting the effectiveness of their produce.
Third, interest groups with their own members and other citizens to exchange information. interest groups or by which it commissioned to carry out the investigation, rendering a particular problem. If the media pay enough attention to this, Members will feel compelled to make a response. These groups have also sought information to their members and to inform them about decisions made. In most cases, only a small number of private citizens will as a legislative find their own members. So long as an interest group to launch sent 200 letters, e-mail will people feel like an avalanche.
the past five years, the rapid development of the Internet to contact a large number of greatly reduced the cost of the public. Many interest groups now have web pages, e-mail as many groups to make their own members and between members and the means of communication between policy makers. However, this means the media is still new, these groups are still studying how best effectively take advantage of it, so it should know exactly what the influence of interest groups will have much effect, at the moment too early.
a relevant recent example of this influence, a number of conservative sites be used to disseminate information on former President Bill. Clinton (Bill Clinton) of the negative information, some true, some are a serious distortion or falsification. This may be the case for maintaining the momentum of Clinton's impeachment played a role, even though most Americans remain opposed to impeachment. unless the big companies to work out a way to exert control use of the Internet, and to improve Internet access charges, or that new media is likely to play a role in the popularization of political dialogue. In turn, the Internet may also encourage citizens into many small, rely on electronic communications to maintain the group, they are a fantastic view of the world becomes more and more isolated.
for more effective public interest groups
For these reasons, smaller, more coordination, a relatively strong financial claims of interest groups, more often than those who represent the interests of citizens are more successful claims. the special interests of specific, often more general than those of the so-called interests prevail more popular. However, in recent years, public interest the emergence of a large number of groups, interest groups does that better reflect the system of the United States as a whole variety of sounds. Moreover, public interest groups are often able to beat the look is more wealthy and powerful opponents. But, ultimately, elected officials are know, need to spend money to win votes. In many cases, those who have mass interest groups can not guarantee that their members will vote for a candidate, and industry associations and private companies able to offer a candidate to buy television advertising to ensure that the necessary dollar.
many public interest groups, a significant lack of, is the lack of genuine grassroots political organization. These groups typically is a small batch of the staff, they rely on the support of thousands of members of the operation, which Members of the group took place with the only connection, but is scheduled to pay membership fees. This structure with a mass political organization of early completely different, when the national campaign is smaller, people face to face contacts between the progressive development of local organizations up. and modern these groups, apart from a few activists, the members rarely meet.
recent years, observers of American society increasingly concerned citizen participation in community affairs groups decreased. This phenomenon involves both non-political organizations, political organizations are also involved. People put forward many reasons: to bring the outlier effects of television; dual-career and single-parent families caused by the reduction of adult leisure time; media-dominated campaign propaganda focused on the personal character hype and scandal, rather than on real issues, which make people have a cynical attitude.
Whatever the causes of reduced civic participation, interest groups and if the grassroots through its local branch to effectively mobilize people to it would in a strong political position. Because of ready-made channels, they can be developed to stabilize the membership base contact without having to spend a lot of money. they can with the candidates and elected officials at the local direct contacts at the national level, lobbying, and confidently said that its members will concern the body as a voting basis. This will be a truly mass movement, rather than passive supporters of keeping money minority affairs personnel actions.
However, the obstacles set up such an organization is enormous. It needs to create a large amount of money to start the grassroots organization. It needs to overcome the problem of Americans will be local issues with national divide and set the habit. It is also induced by many citizens need only know how to get rid of that national media attention to the issues raised, to the neglect of face to face with the tendency of neighbors.
a sign of a democratic society, is to allow citizens to develop their own political resources; in once they feel that private companies or government officials in violation of their interests, to mobilize these resources. In this sense, organized interest groups play a fundamental role in helping citizens make more effective use own resources: the right to vote, freedom of expression, freedom of association and judicial procedures.
Related reading:
Frank R. Baumgartner and Beth Leech, Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and Political Science (Princeton University Press, 1998)
Jeffrey Berry, Lobbying for the People: The Political Behavior of Public Interest Groups (Princeton University Press, 1977)
Allan J. Cigler and Burdett A. Loomis, Interest Group Politics (4th ed., Congressional Quarterly Press, 1995)
Michael T. Hayes, Lobbyists and Legislators: A Theory of Political Markets (Rutgers University Press, 1981)
R. Allen Hays, Who Speaks for the Poor? National Interest Groups and Social Policy (Garland Press [forthcoming, 2001])
Charles Lindblom, Politics and Markets: The World's Political-Economic Systems (Basic Books, 1977)
Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Schocken Books, 1970)
Mark P. Petracca, ed. The Politics of Interests (Westview Press, 1992)
About the Author:
R. Allen. Hayes (R. Allen Hays) is the North Iowa Hua University, Director of Public Policy Graduate Students, professor of political science. his interest groups in the formulation of the operation of the public policy process. Laotelieqi in 2001 by the publication of his activities in the field to make comments and comparisons. Hayes, Chinese University of Iowa professors to teach in the North before the former head of the local government housing.